Tok Essay free essay sample

Humans have come to accept that History by mere definition is the exploration and study of history whereas the Human Sciences are defined as the in depth study of social, biological and cultural aspects of human beings. As humans we have used and accepted this two Areas of Knowledge, to interpret and understand the world around us. History and Human Sciences seek to influence humans through language, reason, and emotion. An assumption is made here that the Ways of Knowing help the Areas of Knowledge mentioned above serve their purpose. Furthermore, by reading the title I am making the assumption that it states that history solely concentrates on unraveling the past, while Human Sciences exclusively seeks to change the future. Nonetheless I claim that it is plausible that both Areas of Knowledge, with the help of ethics, emotion and reason seek to study and understand the knowledge from the past to strive to change the future, but it is up to both historians and human scientists to use it to either better the future or discard it as just knowledge. We will write a custom essay sample on Tok Essay or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The knowledge issue I will investigate in this essay was created by the knowledge stated above, which in turn leads me to question in what ways does History and Human Science use emotion, language and ethics to study the past and change the future. Knowledge from the past comes from studying our history. To have a thorough exploration we must base our knowledge on documents. Written documents however may mislead the reader from their purpose due to the emotions and the bias of the author1. However we must understand that not all documents are biased and share a same opinion. Emotion, as a WOK can either help or  mislead a historian from his task2, and thus make him incapable of using knowledge found to change the future. Mermaids for example, are still a historical controversy. Christopher’s Columbus, a highly know explorer reassured humanity that mermaids indeed existed and stated that, â€Å"Creatures came quite high out of the water but were not as pretty as they are depicted their faces looked more like a mans.† He even reported an encounter with three of these creatures on January of 1493 (Unknown Explorers). Beside many diverse eyewitness testimonies, which can be modified by our emotions, there has no physical evidence of mermaids existing. Therefore lack of physical evidence and evident emotion used, Columbus’s account be related his experience to one of his many delusions while being at sea. Although I believe there are historians, such as Ari Berk (Ari Berk) who still believes in the existence of these creatures, due to the lack of evidence this piece of knowledge has been discarded as a mere folk story from the past. Nonetheless our capacity to approach knowledge from the past to inch towards changing the future relies, I believe, on historians. By exploring the past we can argue that a situation may be likely to take place again. Thus we can interpret the future by using knowledge from the past. A counter-argument formulated against this is that: â€Å"Lightning never falls on the same place twice†. 3An example to this was the Rwanda Genocide. Nations involved in the Holocaust neglected the idea of similar events happening again and thereby thought of the event as part of our history’s past, which arguably later came to form part of the creation of the Rwanda Genocide4 (The Historian). Notwithstanding, there are times where we seek into our history’s past to have a better understanding of what may happen in the future. An example to this is the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Alongside with emotion ethics made this event served as a lesson for the United Nations, who inturn from that moment on intervened in any war or conflict who was nearing the magnitude of the bombings in Japan. When studying the bombing Hiroshima and Nagasaki in World War Two in my IB History class, I was very intrigued by how humanity could act in such a savage and inhumane way towards one of their kind, but then I understood that this event served as a guide to predict human behavior. Since our knowledge is primarily based on intuitions and assumptions as to what a person’s behavior is going to be5, it can then  be inferred by historians what will happen in the future. Although historians seek for evidence to substantiate their facts, there are times were no physical evidence is found therefore they discard their evidence as merely a myth or relate it to other accounts who share a similar believe. Nonetheless historians, who fail to seek into the past to substantiate their viewpoint, don’t necessarily neglect the idea of using the evidence found to better the future. When a historian is successful at achieving his goal and writes a successful review on a historical event it is then when he reasons as to whether the information can be applied to the future to make an improvement or if it should be discarded as another piece of evidence of our history’s past. On similar concept, Human Sciences also study the past to try and change the future. Anthropology as a branch of this AOK cultural anthropology6 studies the cultural and social variation among the different communities and races in the world. Back in the past there was a misconception as to what cultural anthropology studied. It is still believed that this branch of anthropology only limits itself to the study of â€Å"primitive† communities. Certainly this was true in earlier periods were cultural anthropologists studied communities such as the Incan Empire (El Comercio). This research helped the world and even more so Peruvians understand their country’s past. As a Peruvian I find Peru’s history extraordinarily interesting and mysterious. The Incan Empire itself was one of the most enigmatic periods of my country’s past. Sadly, this information in my perspective, strives to resolve the cultural and social variations amongst different races and communities. Cultural anthropologists seek to use the knowledge found strive to resolve the mysteries that sorround a country’s historical background (Manchester University) . Nonetheless cultural anthropologists now a day, seek into our past to make societies aware of what must and what should not be repeated. Quechua for example was the leading language in Peru through the Incan Empire, but now a day through Peru’s colonization and the existence of discrimination in our country, it is only spoken by roughly ten percent of our population (El Comercio). Cultural Anthropologists use this fact to re-affirm that our country is loosing part of its cultural richness, and thus Quechua must be put into practice in order for Peru to keep having the cultural richness Peru has in the future. On the contrary, another branch of anthropology called social  anthropology studies the conflicts, contradictions, ambiguities and perspectives of the social life and how their understanding can help better social relationships in the future. Although reason is needed here, emotion is seen in a much bigger scale throughout the study of this branch due to the fact that human relationships wouldn’t exist without emotion. As part of the Ethics subject in my IB TOK class we had a guest speaker, Gisela Ortiz, come talk to us about the â€Å"Cantuta Massacre, and how it had affected her family7. Anthropologists who studied the Terrorist period in and even more so events similar â€Å"La Cantuta Massacre† led by the Colina Group, led Peru and its government to implement new laws involving Human and Civil Rights (Elementos del Peru). Therefore it is clear that social anthropology seeks to understand the past as an example as to what has to be done and what must not be repeated. While cultural anthropologists study the cultural and social variations of the past to make the world understand the different cultural backgrounds that the 168 countries in the world have, but also seek to enrich them, social anthropologists not only study the past and the present of how human and cultural relationships had begun and have been evolving, but it also uses information to create a better future by implementing improve the human race’s relationships of the future. Even though History and Human Science differ in many aspects it is in this essay’s claim: to understand and seek into our history’s past in order to change the future. Although knowledge may sometimes be inapplicable to the improvement of our future, there are times when it is the lack of physical evidence that plays against historians and humans scientists. Nonetheless, when successful both AOK seek both to understand the past and change the future.

Things You Should Know About Personal Essay Topics for Middle School

Things You Should Know About Personal Essay Topics for Middle School In that event a trustworthy custom writing service is just what you want to fulfill your academic targets. It is possible to even check out several reviews and after that opt for the business which best suits your requirements and reasonably priced budget. For this reason, you might have to look for good topics for high school research papers on the internet. It's extremely important to read carefully essay services reviews, because you would like to steer clear of low superior services. Middle school supplies you with a wide selection of term papers and Middle school science research paper is one such research topic that you may need to handle all on your own. Nurse practitioners have one of the quickest growing careers in the nation, and we have all of the info you will need to understand about what things to anticipate from nurse practitioner school. You might even discuss your own personal experiences or history or even events you've gone through. By way of example, students might write about the advantages of a vegan diet. Personal Essay Topics for Middle School at a Glance When you are given a task to compose an essay on a social issue, you're given a chance to open an exciting discourse. The review is going to teach you all you want to understand and then you are able to place your purchase confidently. Before making up a last choice, think about the simple fact your essay is a bit of academic writing, which means it ought to be relevant and rather for mal. Even if a particular research paper topic is getting lots of buzz at the moment or other men and women seem interested in writing about it, don't feel tempted to make it your topic if you don't genuinely have some type of interest in it also. Once you are in possession of a compelling notion, you are going to be in a position to produce an informative essay outline without difficulty. After the topic is chosen, it would be useful to make an outline so you could see whether you have sufficient information for good-structured research paper. Once you comprehend the kind of essay, it's time to choose a topic. Thanks to the correct selection of presentation style and a thorough understanding of the goals you need to accomplish in your essay, there are plenty of categories essay themes may be broken into. A paper is always simpler to write if you're interested in this issue, and you'll be more motivated to do in-depth research and compose a paper that actually covers the full subject. Another good idea is to receive some totally free essay examples of different sorts and on various subjects to find a general idea of the way in which a prosperous debatable paper looks. The point is to manage the topic in such a way in which the research paper question that arrives from the topic is exclusive, nice and challenging. Without a suitable content, decent research paper topics are not going to make sense. Below are the three most important aspects to consider to be certain you select the ideal research paper topics. What follows is an extensive collection of the most fascinating research topics to have you started. To compose an outstanding paper, you should thoroughly select your topic. In the procedure for writing research articles, it's essential to adhere to a specific topic. Now you have a great idea of the way to hunt for college research paper topics, you are prepared for some suggestions. In high school, you're supposed to choose the type of topic you'll be in a position to dig into that is, you've got to remember to can discover enough info on the discipline. The topic that you select could be just like the one chosen by your peers. There are some main things you will need to be aware of before you even begin picking social issues essay topics. Pets should be permitted in school and offices to improve work efficiency. Students ought to be permitted to pray in school. They lead busy lives and often forget about an upcoming deadline. So locating the finest persuasive essay topics is important. If you're thinking that you will need someone to compose my essay at the moment, you can merely rely on our honest reviews. When you compose a narrative essay, always make sure that there's a moral to the story, or the entire paper isn't going to make sense. Bear in mind which you can make funny argumentative essays if you do a few things. Actually, a great deal of argumentative essays are in reality persuasive papers. Test essay questions will be dependent on the topic, naturally. Our reviews contain details like the score of the clients, our rating, starting prices, Discounts, and grade of the papers.

Essay Topics at University Level

Essay Topics at University LevelThe top level essay topics at university level will be different than what is required at the high school level. Many students will be required to take honors level, which will require more creative and intellectual material, though they may also be required to take all-around or career/vocational courses as well. Writing essays in different contexts is becoming more challenging, as students are forced to include a great deal of more work on the standard college essays. This is due to the fact that these essays must be integrated into an overall course of study, as well as being used to evaluate potential job options and academic plans.In some instances, students will have to write essays for a career/vocational course or even for a science class, depending on the specific school. These topics will be constructed in order to provide depth of information, as well as make the instructor evaluates the student's ability to present the information correctly . Essays tend to be less personal than writing for academic topics, since the teacher will be reviewing the information and making comments on it from a 'content' perspective. The same could also be said for those writing about the United States' political system, which can be an extremely difficult subject to cover.Since so many of the essay topics at university level involve substantial amounts of the students' personal lives, many schools have made it a point to include material about a student's home life in the essay. This is for two reasons. First, most teachers tend to place great emphasis on the history of a student's life, since this will help them gauge the development of a student and show how a student's self-worth is being determined. Second, the essays will be used as a means of evaluating the student's abilities.In some instances, essay topics may include materials from family members and other people that the student has interacted with. This information may be vital to the evaluation process for certain classes. And even if not, the instructor will likely be able to glean the information that will be required of the student to complete the assignment.While teachers may present the essay topics at university level very differently than those for high school level or college level, the subject matter is still important. Essay topics at university level, including the subject matter, will tend to be more educational and can address subjects like: mathematics, biology, computer science, physics, and chemistry. Essay topics will be structured around a general concept that a student will be expected to write about. Such topics as: music, sports, history, and literature are all examples of topics that may be addressed in the college or university level.The essay will generally contain an introductory paragraph, where students will be expected to cover their major points. After this paragraph, the essay will then proceed to the summary of the subject matter. At the end of the essay, there will be a conclusion that includes some statements by the author regarding the use of the material that has been covered in the essay.There are many considerations that will affect the topic that is chosen. Students should consult with a guidance counselor before beginning to write the topic. This will give them an idea of what they will be writing about and whether it is appropriate for the student to write on the topic. The guidance counselor can also give the student ideas about the topic and suggest sample topics for the student to consider.

Science Research Paper Topics - How to Write a Good Science Research Paper Topic From an Outline

Science Research Paper Topics - How to Write a Good Science Research Paper Topic From an OutlineIf you have chosen a science or math topic to write your good sciences research paper, there are several possible ways to start with your topic. You can either just begin with the set-piece presentation of your topic, or you can go on and write in depth about a point which is a central point of your topic. One of the best ways of doing this is to follow an outline.In a good science research paper, the outline will give you a very good structure to work with. You will be able to find examples of papers which started with outlines, or you can go off and write about the central points of your topic from an outline.When beginning with an outline, you must write it first by giving a brief summary. The outline should contain the main idea that will appear in your paper. It should explain the scientific methods used in your topic. It should also indicate which parts of the research are in questio n.You should give the outline to a colleague to read and discuss the paper with you. You may think it is a little tedious and won't make much difference, but this will lead to much better discussion about the topic with you and a second person. Having a second person to help with your paper is extremely important.So, the outline is not necessary if you have written all you want to say in your paper. It is much better to do this. When writing an outline, you may just summarize the major points in your paper, or you may start with a general statement which will become the rest of your paper.You need to think of a key point, or something that will make you and your reader go 'Hmmm.' This can be the general subject of your topic, or it can be an idea which will be discussed in your paper.As you think of a key point, think of what it is that will make it interesting and then incorporate that in your outline. An outline gives you an extremely good structure to work with in your topic. The outline gives you a good way to organize your topic and makes it easy for you to get it into writing.

Leadership Strengths Sample Essay - How to Write a Writing Lesson

Leadership Strengths Sample Essay - How to Write a Writing LessonHere is an example of a leadership strengths sample essay. I am going to share this with you so that you can identify your strengths and choose the kind of writing that will best fit them. The key in writing a successful essay is to be able to come up with five different types of information that you are able to include in the essay.A strong leadership skills article is helpful for many people. In fact, I was asked to write a leadership strengths essay for a church, or a woman's business, and to deliver a speaker presentation on this topic. With this particular article, I am going to show you how to write this article. Let's get started!You need to know how to get the right keywords and phrases in order to use them effectively. You need to know where to find the right keywords and phrases so that you can do your research. Doing research is important because you want to be sure that you are using the correct keywords and phrases so that you will be able to promote your own product and services effectively.One thing that you need to know when you are doing a leadership strengths essay is that it is very important to do your research. You want to use all the keywords that you know to get the proper research. The words and phrases that you use will help you get the right results that you are looking for when you write an article like this.Just as in life, the writer needs to develop his or her own writing style. We want to do things differently than we have always done. So, in order to write an effective leadership strengths article, the writer must know how to write in a way that will make the reader want to learn more about the subject.In order to be effective in promoting your products and services, you need to know how to develop a specific structure for your articles. One thing that you must know is that most people would prefer to read something that is organized in a specific way. If you create a structure in an article, you will be more likely to find what you are looking for in the readers.When you are writing a leadership strengths article, you must also know how to use the proper grammar. You want to make sure that you are using the proper grammar so that you will be able to get the results that you are looking for. You do not want to use poor grammar when you are trying to make sure that you are getting the exact results that you are looking for.

New and Old Wars Comparison

The argument that there are â€Å"New wars† dissimilar to older forms of warfare is not only generalist, but also not supported by existing scholarly and objective literature on the subject. According to Mary Kaldor, â€Å"New Wars† differ from older forms of warfare in their goals, methods of implementation and financing.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on New and Old Wars Comparison specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More I believe, and will show objective analysis in the subsequent paragraphs, that the only difference between â€Å"New Wars† and older types of warfare exists in the manner of financing; however, the goals and methods of implementation of warfare have remained the same throughout the existence of warfare. In Kaldor’s view, the goals of the â€Å"New Wars† are to increase economic gain and impose identity politics â€Å"which is inherently exclusive and tends towards fra gmentation† (2006). Identity politics involves a â€Å"claim to power on the basis of a particular identity† (Kaldor, 2006). The imposition of identity politics in â€Å"New wars† results in the fragmentation of communities and massive resettlement of populations and refugee movement (for example the aftermath of genocide), so much that the movement of these refuges becomes not a by-product of war, but a central goal of it. Concerning the methods of implementation of these â€Å"New wars†, Kaldor is of the view that during the last decades of the twentieth century, a new type of organized violence that incorporated war, organized violence, and human rights violations emerged. This includes the â€Å"privatization of violence† (Kaldor, 2006) creating a scenario where the instruments and means of war are not held by the state but by War loads, criminal gangs and police forces within a particular state. On the issue of financing these â€Å"New warsâ € , Kaldor argues that the state no longer mobilizes finances for the wars, but – especially in weak Third world governments – the fighting units finance themselves through plunder, hostage taking and the black market, or independently through trafficking in humans, dealing in drugs and arms trade.Advertising Looking for essay on international relations? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More On this matter, as stated in the introduction, I concur with Kaldor’s argument that the only difference between â€Å"New wars† and older types is in the modality of financing. To counter kaldor’s theory concerning the goals and implementation methods of the â€Å"New wars†, the first counter-argument concerns the matter of goals of the war. Economic gain has always been the paramount objective of wars, and is not a feature exclusive to â€Å"New wars†. More scrutiny and analysis of wars in con temporary times by â€Å"academics, policy analysts, and politicians† (Newman, 2004, p.180) has served to highlight the wars, bringing out deeper dynamics of the wars, but the main objectives like economic gain have always been present. Even the contemporary factor of multinationals selling weapons to the warring parties serves the same purpose – profiting from war. Furthermore, Identity politics and wars based on fragmenting the society along the lines of race, ethnicity, and religion are as old as war itself. The Armenian genocide of World War I and the Holocaust of World War II are prime examples. The Rwandan genocide of 1994, a supposed â€Å"New War†, has similar features with the two previous genocides, which according to Kaldor, are old types of warfare. In conclusion, I have presented Kaldor’s â€Å"New Wars† theory, identifying its goals, methods and financing. I have argued against its goals and methods, focusing on the argument that both goals and methods can be found throughout history in older forms of warfare. Various violent conflicts, from the present and past, have been addressed and an analysis of the Rwandan genocide, the holocaust, and the Armenian genocide posed. Moreover, the role of the media and advances in information has been analyzed to show that just because there is much more analysis and discussion about wars nowadays does not necessarily make them ‘new’.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on New and Old Wars Comparison specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More References Kaldor, M. (2006). New and Old Wars, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Polity. Newman, E. (2004). The ‘New Wars’ debate: A historical perspective is needed. Security Dialogue vol. 35(2) 173-189. This essay on New and Old Wars Comparison was written and submitted by user Hezekiah Burt to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Colonialism in Africa

Colonialism in Africa Free Online Research Papers Colonialism and its Direct Effect on the Rise of Nationalism in African Culture In America, today, the struggles of Africans over the course of history have gone widely unnoticed, with the exception of slavery in the America. Africa is a diverse group of people of many different backgrounds and languages. This is due to the colonization of Africa by Europeans, which was followed by many struggles to regain their independence as their own people. To fully understand, a person must take a closer look at colonialism and its direct effect on the rise of Nationalism in African culture. Colonialism is defined as a policy by which a nation maintains or extends its control over foreign dependencies, or in more realistic terms an exploitation by a stronger country of weaker one; the use of the weaker countrys resources to strengthen and enrich the stronger country (dictionary.com). A broad historical understanding of direct European colonial influence on the African continent dates back at least to the spread of the Roman Empire to North Africa. The more contemporary era of European colonialism, that was consecrated by the Berlin Conference of 1884-85, was preceded by a gradual process of European expansion into Africa over roughly four-hundred and fifty years (Schraeder 50-1). Beginning in 1434, Portuguese explorers under the leadership of Prince Henry the Navigator began sailing the West African coastline with intent of spreading Christianity and to enhance Portuguese political-military power. The steady advance of Portuguese explorers marked the beginning of what is commonly called in the West the age of exploration (the charting and mapping of lands previously unknown to European powers, before the ultimate imposition of colonial rule). One of the most devastating aspects of increasing foreign influence in Africa at the end of the fifteenth century was the global perception that slavery was a legitimate and necessary tool of political-military and economic expansion (51). Many slave trade routes appeared with the overwhelming acceptance of slavery by the world outside of Africa. The most prominent was the Atlantic slave trade, also called the European slave trade, which primarily shipped slaves to the Western Hemisphere (52). The Atlantic slave trade began during the fifteenth century and was dominated by the European powers. Slaves were sought as cheap labor to work the colonial plantations in the Americas that produced a variety of products that were exported to Europe. For Africans, the slave trade era sowed the seed of nationalism as Europeans divided and separated families, taking the most able people to work in the Western Hemisphere as slaves. Taking the most abled Africans slowed development in the rest of Africa, and the slaves were kept in the poorest conditions no animal, let alone human being, should suffer through. Often many Africans chose death, by jumping in the shark infested water, rather than continue to live their lives as a slave. While the slave trade sowed the seed of nationalism, the application of the nation-state system sprouted further growth. The origins of the nation-state system lie in the 1648 Treaty of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years’ War in Europe. The treaty marked the beginning of the nation-state system, in which sovereign political entities independent of any outside authorities exercised control over peoples residing in separate territories with officially marked boundaries. The imposition of the European nation-state system created a series of artificial states that, unlike their counterparts in Europe, did not evolve gradually according to the wishes of local African peoples. They instead were constructed by European authorities with little concern for local socioeconomic or political-military conditions. Another impact of colonialism was the division of African ethnic groups among numerous colonial states (62). The Somali people of the Horn of Africa are a notable example. Previously united by a common culture but lacking a centralized authority, this classically segmented political system was subjugated and divided among four imperial powers: Britain, France, Italy, and an independent Ethiopia. The problem with division of one people among many states is irredentism, or the political desire of nationalists to reunite their separated peoples in one unified nation-state (63). Another problem with the nation-state system is the opposite of the division of one people among many states. A third impact of European colonialism was the incorporation of previously separate and highly diverse African peoples in one colonial state. Britain’s creation of Nigeria illustrates this colonial practice and its consequences. Nigeria is composed of over two-hundred and fifty different ethnic groups. Only three of those ethnic groups comprises roughly sixty-six percent of the total population and primarily reside in three different areas of Nigeria (64). There are many problems associated with the collection of diverse groups that were never under the same rule until the arrival of colonialism and the nation-state system. It leads to language barriers that will slow the development of the nation-state as a whole. It causes clashes between political cultures. For example, Britain chooses a specific ethnic group residing in Nigeria to be in power. This leads to feuding among the rest of the tribes and ethnic groups because they all believe they should be the elites. The biggest impact that the nation-state system had among the African people was its division of families and friends, which is a vital in every Africans life. The nation-state system imposed boundaries right in the middle of villages, dividing the people among different countries that will have rule over them such as Britain and France. Each country kept strict control of who enters and leaves, making it hard for families and friends to stay in touch, often leading to a total loss of touch with a person’s family. Europeans often imposed their political, judicial, and police systems that were foreign to all Africans, and made them change their social structure to fit the Europeans. Instead of relying on a chief, Privy Council, council of elders, or village assembly, which is what Africans were working with at the time, they had to change their ways of life for the Europeans or face the consequences. Colonialism also imposed a system of a direct export economy. Europeans stripped the lands of Africa for their own benefit and left locals with very little to spare. The hardships that the Europeans imposed developed a sense of identity and pride throughout Africa. Nationalism is defined as a sense of collective identity in which a people perceives itself as different than (and often superior to) other peoples. Nationalism also implies the existence of a variety of shared characteristics, most notably a common language and culture, but also race and religion. The emergence of European â€Å"nations† (or cohesive group identities) generally preceded and contributed to the creation of European â€Å"states†. The result was the creation of viable nation-states that enjoyed the legitimacy of their peoples. This process was reversed in Africa. In most cases, the colonial state was created before any sense of nation existed (81). The idea of freedom, the underdevelopment of Africa, and the development of the concept of Pan-Africanism (feelings of unity) were the reasons why the seed of nationalism that was sowed and sprouted began to fully grow. Adding to the fire was the constant treatment of Africans by Europeans as inferiors, the development on African national unions, rise of Islamic movements, and the rise of the educated class. America also had a direct effect on African nationalism along with other countries that created examples for Africans to follow. In the Atlantic Charter of 1941, the agreement by Roosevelt and Churchill, promised that Africans could choose independence and self-governance. The development of aid and nationalism in Asia also encouraged Africans (in 1947 India took its independence from Britain). Also, the founding of the UN in 1945 increased the hope of all Africans for complete independence. A unique aspect of African nationalism was its inherently anti-colonial character. African nationalist movements were sharply divided on political agendas, ideological orientation, and economic programs. Regardless of their differences, however, the leaders of these movements did agree on one point: the necessity and desirability of independence from foreign control. That desire became a reality for the African leaders and people, but not all at once. There are four major waves of independence in the history of Africa (82). The first wave of independence was marked by peaceful transitions and took place during the 1950s. The wave was led by the heavily Arab-influenced North African countries. Three countries outside North Africa also obtained independence during this period followed by the former French colony of Guinea in 1958. The second wave of independence took place during the 1960s, when more than thirty African countries achieved independence. Most of these countries were former British and French colonies. All three Belgian colonies also acquired independence during this period and were joined by the Republic of Somalia. Aside from some noteworthy exceptions, most notably France’s unsuccessful attempt to defeat a pro-independence guerrilla insurgency in Algeria and the emergence of the Mau Mau guerilla insurgency in Kenya, the decolonization process of the 1960s was also largely peaceful. The departing colonial powers had already accepted the inevitability of decolonization. Questions simply remained as to when and under what conditions (83). The third wave of independence began in 1974. A military coup d’etat in Portugal, led by junior military officers, resulted in a declaration that the Portuguese government intended to grant immediate independence to the colonies in Africa. Coup plotters sought to end their stay because of poorly trained and unmotivated Portuguese military forces that repeatedly fought against highly motivated and increasingly adept African guerilla insurgencies. The violent path to independence in the former Portuguese colonies was further complicated in 1975, when Angolan guerrilla groups clashed in what would become an extended civil war over who would lead an independent Angola. The former French colonies of Comoros, Seychelles, and Djibouti, however, achieved independence under largely peaceful terms. The fourth wave of independence emerged during the 1980s. This wave was directed against the minority white-ruled regimes in Southern Africa. Since 1948, South Africa was controlled by the descendants of white settlers known as Afrikaners. This minority elite established a highly racist system in which blacks and other minorities (roughly eighty-five percent of the population) were denied political rights. The minority white-ruled regimes of Southern Africa were confronted by guerrilla organizations that enjoyed regional and international support. Military struggles were suspended after the white minority regimes agreed to negotiate transitions to black majority rule. Nelson Mandela’s emergence in 1994 as the first democratically elected leader of South Africa signaled the end of the decolonization process and the transition to the contemporary independence era. Through colonialism, which led to slavery and the application of the nation-state system, Africans developed a sense of Nationalism that sparked their movements toward independence. It is through their own will to be their own people that they achieved their current state of independence. 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